Scientists explore Egyptian mummy bones with x-rays and infrared light

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on November 12, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Egypt, Forensics, Near East

Experiments at the Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) are casting a new light on Egyptian soil and ancient mummified bone samples that could provide a richer understanding of daily life and environmental conditions thousands of years ago.

The stepped Pyramid of Djoser and a nearby cobra frieze in Saqqara, Egypt. Bone samples from  mummified remains recovered at Saqqara were studied at the Advanced Light Source [Credit: Mstyslav Chernov/WikiCommons]

In a two-monthslong research effort that concluded in late August, two researchers from Cairo University in Egypt brought 32 bone samples and two soil samples to study using X-ray and infrared light-based techniques at Berkeley Lab's Advanced Light Source (ALS). The ALS produces various wavelengths of bright light that can be used to explore the microscopic chemistry, structure, and other properties of samples.

Their visit was made possible by LAAAMP - the Lightsources for Africa, the Americas, Asia and Middle East Project - a grant-supported program that is intended to foster greater international scientific opportunity and collaboration for scientists working in that region of the globe.

Samples represent four dynasties, two burial sites

The samples included bone fragments of mummified human remains that date back 2,000 to 4,000 years, and soil collected from the sites of the human remains. The remains represent four different dynasties in Egypt: the Middle Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, Late Period, and Greco-Roman.

The visiting scientists, Cairo University Associate Professor Ahmed Elnewishy and postdoctoral researcher Mohamed Kasem, wanted to distinguish whether chemical concentrations in the bone samples were related to the individuals' health, diet, and daily lives, or whether the chemicals in the soil had changed the bones' chemistry over time.

Their work is important for Egypt's cultural heritage and also for a better understanding of antiquities preservation and the potential pathways for contamination of these remains. The samples were recovered from two Egyptian sites - Saqqara, the site of an ancient burial ground; and Aswan, the site of an ancient city on the bank of the Nile once known as Swenett - by Cairo University archaeologists.

"The bones are acting like an archive," said Kasem, who has studied ancient bone chemistry since his Ph.D. studies, dating back to 2011. He has used a chemical-analysis technique involving laser ablation, in which a short laser pulse blasts away a small volume of material from a sample. Then, emitted light from this little blast is analyzed to determine what elements are present.

"We have found lead, aluminum, and other elements that give us an indication of the environment and the toxicity of that time," he said. "That information is stored right in the bones."

Differentiating soil vs. bone chemistry

What's tricky is to sort out how the elements got in the bone. "There might be some diffusion of elements from outside to inside the bones, and effects from bacteria, humidity, and other effects. It is difficult to separate this - to know if it is coming from the surrounding soil. So we've been trying different techniques."

Ahmed Elnewishy, an associate professor at Cairo University, holds a femur bone sample from mummified human  remains that was studied at Berkeley Lab's Advanced Light Source synchrotron. Elneshy and Cairo University  postdoctoral researcher Mohamed Kasem studied dozens of ancient Egyptian bone samples and some soil  samples during a two-month visit made possible by a grant-supported program called LAAAMP  [Credit: Marilyn Sargent/Berkeley Lab]

Kasem added, "So many factors affect the preservation. One of them is how long the bone has been buried in soil and also the state of the bone and the different types of soil." Differences in embalming techniques could also affect the preservation of the bone and the chemistry they find in the X-ray studies. "There are different qualities in the materials, like the cloth and the resins they used to embalm," he said.

While the ancient Egyptians didn't use aluminum in metal-working, researchers have found that they used potassium alum, a chemical compound containing aluminum, to reduce cloudiness in drinking water. And the concentrations of lead were likely due to the lead that Egyptians used to polish pottery.

The latest studies are focused on samples including slices from the head of femur bones and from the femur shafts to see whether one sample type may be more prone to contamination from surrounding soil than the other type, for example. Femur bones are the strongest bones in the human body and run from the knees to the hips. The head, at the top of the femur, has spongier bone material than the core of the shaft.

The researchers worked with ALS research scientists Hans Bechtel and Eric Schaible to carry out experiments at three different beamlines. Schaible assisted the researchers with a technique known as small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), which they used to analyze the nanoscale patterning of collagen, an abundant human protein.

X-ray scans reveal collagen patterns

A single scan of the bone cross-sections, which measured up to 3 to 5 centimeters across and about half a millimeter in thickness, took two to six hours to complete and provided a detailed 2D map showing how the collagen was organized within the bone.

These images can be compared with modern bones to better understand whether and how the collagen degraded over time, and can possibly tell us about an individual's health.


"Collagen is one of the main building blocks of the body," Schaible said. "It's found in skin, bones, internal organs, eyes, ears, blood vessels - it's one of the main things we're made of.  When we shine X-rays through the collagen, the X-rays are scattered and the pattern of scattering that they make can tell us a lot about how well-preserved and well-organized the collagen is."

Though there is much analysis ahead to interpret the data taken from the samples, Schaible said that the collagen assemblies generally aren't as well ordered in the ancient samples as in healthy modern bones.

"It's very exciting to be involved in this project, and to learn about the journey these mummies have been on, in life and after death," he said.

Infrared light shows bone chemistry, mineral concentrations

The infrared studies at the ALS show the chemical distribution and concentration of the minerals and organic materials present in the bones.

"One of the main obstacles was in how to prepare the samples," said Elnewishy. It is difficult to cut thin cross-sections from such delicate material.

Schaible contacted a specialized lab at UC Berkeley's Earth and Planetary Science Department, which aided in slicing the samples. For the thinnest sections and the most fragile samples, the bone was suspended in epoxy resin and then sliced.

Plans for new experiments

Elnewishy said there are plans to also conduct related experiments at SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East), a scientific light source in Jordan that opened up to experiments in 2017. SESAME was built through a cooperative venture by scientists and governments in the region.

He noted that what the team learns about cultural heritage and preservation of samples through its experiments could potentially benefit the collections of the Grand Egyptian Museum in Giza, which is expected to open in 2020 and will host more than 100,000 Egyptian artifacts.

Source: DOE/Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory [November 12, 2019]

Ancient Rome: a 12,000-year history of genetic flux, migrations and diversity

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on November 08, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Europe, Forensics, Genetics, Italy, Southern Europe

The study, published in Science, focuses on the ancient DNA of individuals from Rome and adjacent regions in Italy, spanning the last 12,000 years. Those genetic data reveal at least two major migrations into Rome, as well as several smaller but significant population shifts over just the last few thousand years.

The excavation of the collective grave. All in all, researchers have collected DNA samples at 29 locations in Rome [Credit: Michaela Lucci]

Notably, DNA analysis revealed that as the Roman Empire expanded around the Mediterranean Sea, immigrants from the Near East, Europe, and North Africa migrated to Rome, significantly changing the face of one of the ancient world's first great cities.

"We did not expect to detect such an extensive genetic diversity already at the time of the origins of Rome, with individuals with ancestries from North Africa, the Near East, and the European Mediterranean regions", says Ron Pinhasi, an associate professor of evolutionary anthropology at the University of Vienna and one of the paper's senior authors along with Jonathan Pritchard, a professor of genetics and of biology and Alfredo Coppa professor of Physical Anthropology at Sapienza University in Rome, that together with Luca Bondioli, of the Museum of Civilizations of Rome, Mauro Rubini, of the Archaeological Superintendence of Lazio, and other anthropologists, conducted the sampling of the examined skeletons. "For the first time a study of this magnitude is conducted on a great classical civilization and is focused on Rome the capital of one of the greatest empires of Antiquity" declares Alfredo Coppa.

Genetic contact

Rome presented an interesting opportunity to use the same ancient DNA techniques the team used in the last decade to fill in details left out of the historical record, Pritchard said. "The historical and archaeological records tell us a great deal about political history and contacts of different kinds with different places - trade and slavery, for example - but those records provide limited information about the genetic makeup of the population."

Aerial view of the Palazzo della Cancelleria. The cemetery has been dug in the central courtyard [Credit: Michaela Lucci]

"Ancient DNA data provides a new source of information which is linked really well to social history of individuals from Rome at different ages", says Ron Pinhasi. Alfredo Coppa adds, "In our study, we used the collaboration and support of a large number of archaeologists, who opened their archives to us, and allowed us to better understand what genetic data was highlighting."

To find out what that makeup looked like, the Stanford team partnered with their collaborators in Rome and Vienna to gather 127 human DNA samples from 29 sites in and around Rome dating from between the Stone Age and medieval times. An analysis of some of the earliest samples more or less comport with what has been found around Europe - an influx of farmers primarily descended from early agriculturalists from Turkey and Iran around 8,000 years ago, followed by a shift toward ancestry from the Ukrainian Steppe somewhere between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago. By the founding of Rome, traditionally dated to 753 BCE, the city's population had grown in diversity and resembled modern European and Mediterranean peoples.

Republic, Empire and beyond

But for the authors, the most interesting parts were yet to come. Although Rome began as a humble city-state, within 800 years it had gained control over an Empire extending as far west as Britain, south into North Africa and east into Syria, Jordan and Iraq.

Researchers have collected 127 DNA samples at excavations [Credit: Michaela Lucci]

As the empire expanded, it facilitated the movement and interaction of people through trade networks, new road infrastructure, military campaigns, and slavery. Contemporary accounts and archaeological evidence support tight connections between Rome and all other parts of the empire - in fact, the daily life of Rome relied heavily on trade goods from other parts of the empire to supply its enormous urban center.

The researchers found that the genetic corroborates but also complicates the historical record. There was a massive shift in Roman residents' ancestry, but that ancestry came primarily from the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, possibly because of denser populations there relative to the Roman Empire's western reaches in Europe and Africa.

The next several centuries were full of turmoil: the capital's move to Constantinople and subsequent split of the Empire, disease outbreaks that decimated the population of Rome and a series of invasions, including the Visigoth's sacking of Rome in 410 CE, when, as Saint Jerome put it, "the bright light of all the world was put out." These events left their mark on the city's ancestry, which shifted away from eastern Mediterranean and toward western European. Similarly, the rise and reign of the Holy Roman Empire brought an influx of central and northern European ancestry.

Migration is nothing new

The study shows that the ancient world was perpetually in flux, both in terms of culture and ancestry.

"It was surprising to us how rapidly the population ancestry shifted, over timescales of just a few centuries, reflecting Rome's shifting political alliances over time" Pritchard said.


Another striking aspect was how cosmopolitan the population of Rome was, starting more than 2000 years ago and continuing through the rise and dissolution of the empire. Even in antiquity, Rome was a melting pot of different cultures.

"We now need to think about new studies which look at the interaction between people of different social classes across the Roman Empire, including not only the movements of particular groups from different regions, but also of social mobility in both core regions, and the various provinces" says Ron Pinhasi.

"In addition to better analyzing relations with the pre-Roman peoples of central-southern Italy" adds Alfredo Coppa.

Source: University of Vienna [November 08, 2019]

Skull dimensions of Dominicans and Haitians differ despite close physical proximity

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 31, 2019 / comment : 0 Anthropology, Caribbean islands, Dominican Republic, Forensics, Haiti

Forensic anthropologists analyze skeletal remains to establish the biological profile (sex, age, ancestry and stature). While ancestry is an important component, most research has focused on identifying individuals of African-American and European-American descent.

Linear Measurements used according to craniometric points [Credit: Cordeiro et al. 2015]

Now for the first time, researchers from Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM) have conducted a craniometric study (measuring the main part of the skull) on understudied and marginalized groups and found that skull dimensions of Dominicans and Haitians, who occupy a relatively small island of Hispaniola, are different from each other.

According to the researchers, while skeletal and genetic studies show that Caribbean groups are incredibly diverse, they are often lumped together under the broad ancestral category of "Hispanic," along with many other Latin American groups.

Using standard anthropometric craniometric measurements (28 measurements) of both Dominicans and Haitians from computerized tomography (CT) scans from a major hospital in Santo Domingo, the researchers analyzed the measurements to determine similarities and differences.

"Our study demonstrates that, despite sharing a small island, Dominican and Haitian individuals can be differentiated with a fair amount of statistical certainty, which is possible due to complex population histories that have kept them separate despite their geographically close proximity," explained corresponding author Michelle Herrera, a graduate student in the MS Program in Forensic Anthropology at BUSM.

The authors believe it is important to conduct research on groups that are not represented in the typically researched skeletal collections. "Ultimately, this research can aid forensic specialists in identifying missing persons on the island of Hispaniola," added Herrera.

The findings are published in Forensic Science International.

Source: Boston University School of Medicine [October 31, 2019]

Frozen mosses reveal clues to Iceman Otzi's final journey

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 30, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Europe, Forensics, Italy, Southern Europe

Clues to the final journey of Otzi – a remarkable 5,300-year-old human corpse found frozen in ice in the Italian Alps – have now been revealed through the identification of mosses and liverworts frozen with the Iceman, according to new University of Glasgow research.

Image of the Otzi site [Credit: Jim Dickson]

The study – published in PLOS ONE and in collaboration with the University of Innsbruck – identified at least 75 species of brypophytes – mosses and liverworts – preserved with the Iceman, holding important clues to Otzi’s final surroundings and last moments.

When discovered in 1991, Otzi’s mummified body, melting out of ice high in the Alps (3,210m above sea level), captured the attention of the world. His body was frozen alongside his clothing and gear, as well as an abundance of plants and fungi.

Today, 23 bryophyte species live the area near where Otzi was found, but inside the ice, the researchers identified thousands of preserved bryophyte fragments representing at least 75 species. It is the only site of such high altitude with bryophytes preserved over thousands of years.

Only 30% of the identified bryophytes appear to have been local species, with the rest having been transported to the spot by Otzi’s gut or clothing, or by large herbivores such as the Alpine Ibex whose droppings ended up frozen alongside the Iceman.

The non-local species help to confirm the path Otzi took to his final resting place. Several of the identified moss species thrive today in the lower Schnalstal valley, suggesting that Otzi travelled along the valley during his ascent.

Taphonomic processes. These led to the deposition of flowering plant remains at the Otzi discovery site according to Heiss and Oeggl [Credit: Dickson et al, 2019]

This conclusion is corroborated by previous pollen research, which also pinpointed Schnalstal (a valley in the South Tyrol, Italy) as the Iceman’s likely route of ascent.

The assemblage also included a variety of mosses ranging from low-elevation to high-elevation species, as well as 10 species of liverworts, which are very rarely preserved in archaeological sites.

From these remains, the researchers infer that the bryophyte community in the Alps around 5,000 years ago was generally like that of today.

Emeritus Professor Jim Dickson, Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine (and former Professor of Archaeobotany and Plant Systematics), has been studying the world-famous Iceman since 1994.

Professor Dickson said: “Most members of the public are unlikely to be knowledgeable about bryophytes (mosses and liverworts). However, no fewer than 75 species of these important investigative clues were found when the Iceman (aka Otzi) was removed from the ice. They were recovered as mostly small scraps from the ice around him, from his clothes and gear, and even from his alimentary tract. Those findings prompted the questions: Where did the fragments come from? How precisely did they get there? How do they help our understanding of the Iceman?”

“Some of the mosses are important in investigating the precise route of his very last journey. The crucial one is called Flat Neckera, a woodland species, which was found both as a large mass adhering to his clothes and as microscopic pieces in his gut. That discovery and other mosses of similar ecology from low to moderate altitude are as near proof as it is possible to get that the Iceman climbed from south to north up Schnalstal rather than ascending other adjacent valleys.”

Source: University of Glasgow [October 30, 2019]

Isotope analysis finds source lead poisoning among slaves on Barbados

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 30, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Caribbean islands, Forensics

The dental remains of 25 enslaved Africans from the site of Newton's Plantation, on Barbados, were subjected to isotope analysis. Previous research had pointed out that the locally born individuals were subjected to high concentrations of lead poisoning. A new study, done by Dr. Jason Laffoon among others and published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, employed isotope analysis to find the source of the poisoning.

Skeletal remains from the Newton Plantation Slave Cemetery, Barbados [Credit: Leiden University]

The enslaved African population of Newton's Plantation

Previous osteological research identified the site's cemetery population as containing the skeletal remains of enslaved Africans that worked on the plantation from the 17th and 18th centuries AD. Previous isotopic analyses of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and strontium was able to identify which of these individuals were born in Africa (and forcibly migrated to the Caribbean) and which of them were born and raised on the island of Barbados. Subsequent analysis of Pb concentrations in their teeth and bones indicated that the locally born Barbadians were subjected to high levels of lead (Pb) poisoning throughout their lives beginning as early as infancy.

New analyses

The aims of this current study were to use lead (Pb) isotope analyses of teeth samples from the same individuals to try to determine the source of the lead poisoning, and to investigate if the Pb isotope ratios of the first generation African (forced) migrants could help to identify where in Arica they originated from.

Main findings

The Pb isotope ratios of all of the local Barbadian enslaved people are consistent with British lead sources. This suggests that the Newton population was subjected to lead poisoning primarily via exposure to British material culture. Although the exact mechanism of exposure is unknown, it is most likely related to the use of lead in pipes, pipe fittings, containers and other equipment used in the processing and production of rum.

Future research

The results of this study show great promise for determining the source of anthropogenic lead exposure amongst past populations. Unfortunately, the Pb isotope results did not shed new light on the specific areas of origin of the African-born individuals but future research combining new isotope analyses and aDNA analyses will attempt to address this question.

Source: Leiden University [October 30, 2019]

Researchers identify the sex of skeletons based on elbow features

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 23, 2019 / comment : 0 Anthropology, Forensics

In an effort to help identify skeletal remains of Thai descent, researchers from Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM) have found that examining the distal humerus (elbow) bone is superior to previous techniques that were developed for identifying sex in a non-Asian population.

Credit: Alamy

Forensic anthropologists estimate the biological profile (sex, ancestry, age, and stature of skeletonized remains) for the purpose of identification. Sex is one of the most important components of the biological profile as it can narrow the pool of missing persons significantly in certain forensic contexts. Sex is typically determined by the morphology (shape) of the pelvis or skull and long bone measurements.

"However, many of the areas on the skeleton that are used for sex estimation may be missing or damaged due to trauma, poor preservation, animal scavenging and nature of the incident (explosive). Therefore, it is important to examine other areas of the skeleton that preserve well and are potentially sexually dimorphic (show differences between females and males)," explained corresponding author Sean Tallman, PhD, RPA, assistant professor of anatomy and neurobiology at BUSM.

More than 600 (female 198; male 418) skeletons from a modern, documented collection in Khon Kaen, Thailand were examined. Sex estimation methods using the distal humerus that had been developed on non-Asian individuals were applied to the Thai skeletons. "We found that the shape of the distal humerus differs between females and males in modern Thai individuals. However, when methods that were developed on non-Asian populations were applied to the Thai skeletons, the methods performed poorly, indicating that there are population differences in the degree of sexual dimorphism in the humerus," said Tallman.

According to the researchers, accurate biological profile methods need to be established and tested on modern skeletal collections that are genetically linked with the skeletons being studied. However, the majority of methods presently being used were created on and tailored to populations in North America using late 19th and early 20th centuries and modern documented skeletal collections. "It is important to develop biological profile methods that can help identify individuals from this often neglected region of the world that is susceptible to mass disaster from weather, earthquakes, tsunamis as well as civil unrest," added Tallman.

These findings appear online in the Journal of Forensic Sciences.

Source: Boston University School of Medicine [October 23, 2019]

Face of a Medieval man found in Aberdeen reconstructed

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 22, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Europe, Forensics, Scotland, UK, Western Europe

The face of a Medieval man whose remains were found in Aberdeen has been reconstructed. The man - known as skeleton 125 - was one of 60 full skeletons and more than 4,000 human bone fragments found after work began at the Aberdeen Art Gallery redevelopment site.

Skeleton 125 has been reimagined by experts after a 60 skeleton discovery in Aberdeen [Credit: AOC Archaeology Group]

Testing indicated the man was over the age of 46 and shorter than average. The researchers - AOC Archaeology Group - said he had suffered from extensive dental disease.

Dr Paula Milburn, from AOC Archaeology, described the work as providing a "fascinating glimpse" into the lives of Aberdonians 600 years ago.

The man was said to have suffered from extensive dental disease [Credit: AOC Archaeology Group]

Dr Milburn said: "The ongoing post-excavation work is examining the remains in detail and will provide us with amazing information on the kind of people buried here, including their ages, gender, health and lifestyles."

She said research also indicated that the man possibly spent his childhood in an area such as the north-west Highlands or Outer Hebrides.

Source: BBC News Website [October 22, 2019]

Lifestyle is a threat to gut bacteria: Otzi proves it

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 18, 2019 / comment : 0 Anthropology, Europe, Forensics, Genetics, Italy, Southern Europe

The intestinal microbiome is a delicate ecosystem made up of billions and billions of microorganisms, bacteria in particular, that support our immune system, protect us from viruses and pathogens, and help us absorb nutrients and produce energy.

The Iceman [Credit: © South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology/ Eurac Research/Marion Lafogler]

The industrialization process in Western countries had a huge impact on its content. This was confirmed by a study on the bacteria found in the intestine of Otzi, the Iceman who, in 1991, emerged from the ice of the Otztal Alps, where Italy borders with Austria. Scientists of Eurac Research examined samples of the mummy's bacteria, confirming the findings of the researchers of the University of Trento who had analyzed the genome of intestinal microorganisms of over 6500 individuals from all continents.

Previous studies by the University of Trento had demonstrated that there is a connection between the microbiome's bacterial content and the increase, in Western countries, of obesity, autoimmune and gastrointestinal diseases, allergies and other complex conditions. In the study published in Cell Host & Microbe, researchers from Cibio of the University of Trento and Eurac in Bolzano/Bozen demonstrated that the differences between Western and non-Western or prehistoric microbiome lie in the decrease of some types of bacteria that process complex and vegetal fibers in the intestine.

That may have been caused by the Westernization process. Changes in diet, which is now higher in fat and low in fibers, a sedentary lifestyle in an urban setting, the development of new hygiene habits and the widespread use of antibiotics and other medical products have, with no doubt, made our life safer, but impacted the delicate balance of our microbiome.

The scientists of Eurac Research in Bolzano/Bozen sequenced the Iceman's DNA and were able to identify his set of bacteria, while the researchers of the University of Trento compared it with the microbiome of contemporary non-Westernized populations (from Tanzania and Ghana in particular), which are not used to processed food and have non-Westernized hygiene practices and lifestyle. Their findings were surprising.

The study focused, in particular, on Prevotella copri, a microbe that, when is found in our intestine, is usually the most represented. P. copri is present in 30% of Western individuals.

"First of all, we found out that P. copri it is not a monotypic species but is composed of four distinct but similar clades," explained Nicola Segata, coordinator of the study with Adrian Tett of Cibio of the University of Trento. "We then noticed that at least three of these four clades are almost always present in non-Westernized populations, but are much less prevalent in Westernized individuals. And when it is so, there usually is only one of the four clades. We postulated that the complex process of Westernization had a considerable impact on the gradual disappearance of this bacterium. Our hypothesis was confirmed by the analysis of ancient samples of DNA that were made available by Frank Maixner of the Institute for Mummy Studies at Eurac Research. The Iceman's guts contained three of the four clades of P. copri. And the four clades were also co-present in fossilized stool samples from Mexico that are more than one thousand years old. We still do not know what are the biomedical consequences of these changes of the microbiome which has evolved considerably in recent decades while the human body it colonizes has remained genetically practically unchanged for centuries,"

"Through these 'ancient' samples," continued Tett, "we were able to study the evolution of these clades and now we know that they genetically delineated with the human species and before the initial human migrations out of the African continent."

The study is the result of close collaboration with the research group of Albert Zink and Frank Maixner at Eurac Research in Bolzano/Bozen. Their team was responsible for the collection and pre-analysis of the Iceman's DNA samples. "The relation between the evolution of the human species and the diversity of intestinal microorganisms, as a field of research, is still rather unexplored, but can yield important results in the future through the analysis of ancient DNA. For this reason, finding more advanced and less invasive techniques to obtain and analyze DNA from human remains is one of the major areas of research at Eurac" concluded the microbiologist of Eurac Research Frank Maixner.

Source: Universita di Trento [October 18, 2019]

Study 'cures' oldest case of deafness in human evolution

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 15, 2019 / comment : 0 Anthropology, Early Humans, Forensics, Spain

An international team of researchers including faculty at Binghamton University, State University of New York, has published a new study examining a 430,000-year-old cranium of a human ancestor that was previously described as deaf, representing the oldest case of deafness in human prehistory.

Cranium 4 from the site of the Sima de los Huesos in northern Spain [Credit: Binghamton University]

"The current finding is significant because we have definitively shown this individual was not deaf. Rather than rely on subjective assessments based on the presence of a pathological condition in the ear canals, we have studied in detail the physiological implications of the pathology and have found it does not affect hearing," said Binghamton University anthropologist Rolf Quam. "This is a classic pathology that has been identified in more recent archaeological skeletons and has long been a source of speculation regarding its effects on the lifeways of past human populations. This is the first time the effects have been studied so precisely."

The study, led by anthropologists and clinicians at the University of Alcala and HM Hospitals in Spain, focuses on Cranium 4 from the site of the Sima de los Huesos in northern Spain. This is one of the most complete crania known from the Middle Pleistocene time period and is considered to be an early ancestor of the Neandertals.

The right and left ear canals in this individual both show the presence of extra bony growths (exostoses, in technical terms) which partially block the ear canal. Similar pathologies have been documented in Neandertals across Europe and the Middle East and have been frequently reported in archaeological skeletons from more recent time periods. Although the precise reason behind the formation of this pathology in living humans is unclear, it has often been associated with repeated exposure to cold water.

The researchers analyzed high resolution computed tomography (CT) scans to create virtual 3D models of the ear structures. Data from measurements taken on the 3D models were then entered into a software program that predicts hearing abilities based on the anatomical measurements of the ear. This model was applied previously to other healthy individuals from the same site, who were shown to have hearing abilities that closely matched those in modern humans.


Relying on this methodology, the researchers hoped to document more precisely the degree of hearing loss exhibited by Cranium 4 individual. Surprisingly, despite this pathology in the ear canals, this individual did not suffer any appreciable differences in hearing compared to the healthy individuals from this same site.

"We were very surprised by the results," said coauthor Manuel Rosa of the Universidad de Alcala "and expected for this individual to have suffered some degree of hearing loss." This represents one of the classic pathological conditions of the human skeleton known to anthropologists for decades, and the academic literature is rife with explanations for why these bony growths appear and what their effects are on the individuals showing them.

"Our study is the first detailed attempt to analyze the clinical implications of this pathology in our fossil human ancestors," said lead researcher Mercedes Conde, "and our results suggest caution in attributing auditory consequences to the presence of these bony growths."

In living humans, hearing loss has clear social consequences since it is associated with delays in language acquisition, increased behavioral problems and psychological stress. Inferring such ephemeral aspects of human social life in ancient fossils is challenging and only rarely possible. The results of this new study suggest that, rather than representing a marginalized individual, the Cranium 4 individual appears to have been fully capable of engaging in the social life and activities of their group.

"This study represents a novel approach to examining a well-known pathological condition, relying on medical imaging technology and virtual 3D models to assess the clinical implications of an ancient disease and to reveal new insights into the lifeways of our ancestors," said Quam.

The researchers have some ear bones (malleus and incus) from Cranium 4's middle ear cavity that they plan to study in the near future.

The findings are published in the Journal of Human Evolution.

Source: Binghamton University [October 15, 2019]

The brain does not follow the head

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 15, 2019 / comment : 0 Anthropology, Forensics, Human Evolution

The human brain is about three times the size of the brains of great apes. This has to do, among other things, with the evolution of novel brain structures that enabled complex behaviors such as language and tool production. A study by anthropologists at the University of Zurich now shows that changes in the brain occurred independent of evolutionary rearrangements of the braincase.

CT/MRI datasets of a human (left), chimpanzee (center), and gorilla (right). Surface reconstructions of bony structures were derived from CT data, while volume renderings of brain segmentations were obtained from postprocessed MRI data [Credit: J.L. Alatorre Warren, UZH]

The human brain is like a fish in an aquarium, floating inside the liquid-filled braincase - but filling it out almost completely. The relationship between the brain and the braincase, and how they interacted during human evolution, has been occupying the minds of researchers for almost a century. They addressed this question by studying brain-braincase relationships in our own species, and in our closest living relatives, the great apes.

Quantifying spatial relationships between brain and cranial structures

Jose Luis Alatorre Warren, researcher at the Department of Anthropology of the University of Zurich, tackled this question using computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from humans and chimpanzees.

By combining CT/MRI data, he was able to quantify the spatial relationships between brain structures such as gyri (convolutions) and sulci (furrows) on the one hand, and cranial structures such as bony sutures on the other.

The results show that the characteristic spatial relationships between brain and bone structures in humans are clearly distinct to those in chimpanzees. While the brain and its case continued to evolve side by side, they did so along largely independent evolutionary paths.

Bipedalism leads to changes in braincase

For example, brain structures related to complex cognitive tasks such as language, social cognition and manual dexterity expanded significantly in the course of human evolution. This becomes visible as a shift of the neuroanatomical boundaries of the frontal lobe of the brain.

Faces of Indus Valley people reconstructed

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 10, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Asia, Forensics, India, South Asia

In a first-of-its-kind attempt, scientists have generated (what they claim to be) an accurate facial representation of people from the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Original skulls (left) of two individuals which went through cranofacial reconstruction and the final facial appearance after reconstruction [Credit: TNN]

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) is one of the earliest civilisations on planet Earth, dating back 8,000 years. Archaeological remains from this ancient society have been discovered throughout a vast area that spans India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. While evidence has helped researchers learn much about things like their architecture, the customs of the Indus people and their clothing and ornaments, nobody knew what these people actually looked like--until now.

Thus far, the idea of Indus people’s facial appearances was based on portraits, an art form that was poorly developed in the Indus Valley. But now, close examination of the recently-unearthed skeletal remains from IVC has unveiled scientifically accurate representations of its residents’ faces.

In a study led by W J Lee and Vasant Shinde, craniofacial reconstruction (CFR) technique, using computed tomography (CT) data, was applied on two skulls from the Indus Valley Civilisation to recreate their faces. CFR is a technique widely used in the field of anatomy and forensics to approximate the faces of deceased individuals. The two deceased subjects examined in this study were selected from the 37 bodies that were found during an excavation project between 2013-2016, buried at the 4,500-year-old Rakhigarhi cemetery (situated near present-day Hisar District of Haryana, India).

After several stages of reconstruction that were performed on the two skulls, named BR02 and BR36 respectively, the following facial reconstructions were achieved.

While the findings are most certainly breakthrough, caution has been issued against drawing any generic conclusions. The authors of the study believe more investigation of graves and anthropological data is needed to form a comprehensive account on the subject.

The study has been published in the Anatomical Science International journal.

Source: Times of India [October 10, 2019]

Ancient genomes provide insight into genetic history of second plague pandemic

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on October 02, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Europe, Forensics, Genetics

An international team of researchers has analyzed remains from ten archaeological sites in England, France, Germany, Russia, and Switzerland to gain insight into the different stages of the second plague pandemic (14th-18th centuries) and the genetic diversity of Yersinia pestis during and after the Black Death. In a study published in Nature Communications, the researchers reconstructed 34 Y. pestis genomes, tracing the genetic history of the bacterium, which revealed key insights into the initiation and progression of the second plague pandemic in Europe.

Mass grave dating to the Black Death period, identified in the '16 rue des Trente Six Ponts' archaeological site in Toulouse, France [Credit: Archeodunum SAS, Gourvennec Michael]

The second plague pandemic, which began with the Black Death in the mid-14th century and continued with devastating outbreaks in Europe and the vicinity until the 18th century, decimated the continent, causing the death of up to 60% of the population. But where did this strain of Yersinia pestis, the plague causing bacterium, come from? And how did it evolve and expand once it arrived?

A likely point of entry for Y. pestis during the second pandemic

Despite the ubiquity of the Black Death in historical texts and the popular imagination, the entry point of the Y. pestis bacterium at this time and the route it traveled through Europe remain unclear, due to a lack of data from early outbreaks and a general scarcity of published ancient Y. pestis genomes.

In the current study, researchers reconstructed plague genomes from the teeth of 34 individuals, including two from Laishevo, in the Volga region of Russia, and found a single strain that is ancestral to all second pandemic strains. In addition, the researchers observe an absence of genomic diversity from samples during the Black Death.

"These findings indicate a single entry of Y. pestis into Europe through the east", explains first author Maria Spyrou of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. "However, it is possible that additional interpretations may be revealed with future discoveries of un-sampled diversity in western Eurasia", she notes.

Persistence of Y. pestis within Europe

Although the researchers found that the European-wide Black Death was likely caused by a single strain, analysis of genomes from later in the pandemic shows the emergence of a lineage displaying a higher genetic diversity.

Locations of newly sequenced (circles) and previously published (triangles) plague genomes, colored by their temporal order [Credit: Spyrou et al. 2019]

"In the later phase of the second pandemic, we see the development of multiple branches within Europe, which suggests that plague was maintained in different local foci", says Marcel Keller, co-first author of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. "No modern descendants of this lineage have been found to date, possibly indicating the extinction of these reservoirs."

The researchers also identified a deletion including two virulence-related genes from genomes within this second lineage. Interestingly, genomes from the late stages of the first plague pandemic have shown a deletion in the same region.

"Given that this deletion occurred in lineages from the first and second pandemic, both now extinct, determining how these genes impact maintenance in human and flea hosts would be an important area for future study", comments Kirsten Bos, research group leader of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

The current study provides new perspectives into the initiation and progression of the second plague pandemic and adds significantly to the database of published ancient Y. pestis genomes. "We have shown that extensive analysis of ancient Y. pestis genomes can provide unique insights into the microevolution of a pathogen over a period of several hundred years", says senior author Johannes Krause, Director of the Department of Archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. In the future, integrating this data into disease modelling efforts, in conjunction with data from other areas such as climate science, epidemiology and history, will be important for better understanding the second plague pandemic.

Source: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History [October 02, 2019]

Inca child sacrifice victims came from all over the empire

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on September 30, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Forensics, Peru, South America

The children sacrificed to the gods by the Incas on volcanoes could have come from different parts of the empire, say researchers who study Peruvian mummies, including bioarchaeologist from Poland.

Skull of a boy from Ampato volcano, burned by lightning [Credit: D. Socha]

Archaeologists know a dozen places in Peru, where about 500 years ago, on the tops of mountains or volcanoes, the Incas sacrificed children in the capacocha ritual. Dagmara Socha, a bioarchaeologist from the Center for Andean Studies of the University of Warsaw (CEAC) in Cuzco, has been studying these remains for several years as part of a project carried out jointly with Rudi Chavez Perea. He is the director of the Museo Santuarios Andinos of the Catholic University of Santa Maria in Arequipa (Peru).

This year, researchers focused on the remains of children laid on the tops of two volcanoes - Ampato and Pitchu Pitchu. Several decades ago, Dr. Johan Reihard found these remains, seated in stone platforms that looked like rectangular squares. They are currently kept in cold storage at Museo Sancturios Andinos. Some are very well preserved in the form of mummies.

According to Socha, the Incas believed that at the time of sacrifice the children would become intermediaries between gods and people. "The Incas considered the children pure and untouched; their status was supposed to facilitate persuading the gods to make specific decisions" - explains Socha.

Scientists still do not know what was the key to selecting children who were sacrificed. "They certainly had to have some exceptional traits, such as beauty or ancestry" - says Socha. In the case of one of the girls whose remains were found in a platform on Pichu Pichu, researchers noticed deliberate deformation of the head, which was elongated. It is known that this practice was used not in the mountains, but rather in the lowland, coastal part of the Inca empire. This may mean - the researcher suggests - that the girl was taken from a family living in a very distant region.

Children offered in a sacrifice ritual by the pre-Columbian culture Chimú [Credit: Programa Arqueologico Huanchaco/AFP]

There is another argument to support this theory. On the girl`s teeth there are visible changes in the enamel structure, in the form of a line clearly distinguished from the rest of the teeth. Such traces occur in people who experienced hunger at some point in their lives. They can also form as a result of other reasons disrupting their development, for example very strong stress. In the case of the examined remains of the girl, it is known that this occurred around the age of three.

"I suppose it was then that the girl was taken away from her parents and brought to Cuzco, the capital of the Inca empire, where girl was being prepared for three years to be sacrificed at the top of the volcano" - says Socha.

Some of the remains of six children examined by Socha this year were mummified. But not all of them. Some remains are poorly preserved, and some have burn marks. Socha explains that the Incas erected sacrificial platforms in places exposed to lightning strikes. There are many indications that lightning would strike the platforms repeatedly. That is why soft tissues and clothes that children were wearing at the time of death have not survived to our times.

"According to the Incas, a person struck by lightning received great honour: a god expressed interest in that person" - she adds.

Skull of a child sacrifice at Huanchaquito-Las Llamas in Peru [Credit: © John Verano]

The concept of lightning strike is also supported by the fact that the soil around the remains was crystallized.

The mummies examined by Socha are now frozen (kept in a similar condition as at the time of discovery). Research did not involve unwrapping mummies - quite the opposite. Scientists strive to minimize interference in the remains. To determine their content, they used X-rays (radiography). Thanks to this, we know about numerous objects in the mummies: metal objects, including gold pins fastening robes, but also wooden ones, ritual cups. There were also other decorations, for example a gold tube or petals. Socha says that very similar objects are found at mummies discovered in Argentina. This means that the set of objects deposited with children was similar throughout the great Inca empire.

Photogrammetry and 3D modelling specialists Dominika Sieczkowska (CEAC UW) and Bartosz Chmielewski (Wroclaw University of Science and Technology) created a three-dimensional photogrammetric model of mummy.

"The remains of children, including mummies, were taken out of refrigerators for a maximum of twenty minutes, after which they were returned to the cold storage. Thanks to the models, we can now make analyses in the comfort of the office" - she adds.

Next year, scientists plan to continue studying the remains of children. Taking tooth samples will allow to determine their diet and place of origin. This year`s work was financed by the Peruvian side.

Author: Szymon Zdzieblowski | Source: PAP - Science in Poland [September 30, 2019]

Preserving old bones with modern technology

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on September 26, 2019 / comment : 0 Archaeology, Early Humans, Forensics, Fossils

A team of University of Colorado Boulder anthropologists is out to change the way that scientists study old bones damage-free.

A bone fragment found in Serbia dating back to around 25,000 to 45,000 years ago [Credit: Christina Ryder; Sponheimer lab]

If that sounds like a macabre goal, consider this: Bits of well-preserved bones are valuable to researchers studying humans who lived thousands to hundreds of thousands of years ago.

These samples sometimes contain collagen, a useful molecule than can reveal a wealth of information about human remains--from how long ago a person died to what he or she may have eaten.

"Bone collagen is really a treasure within the realm of archaeology," said Christina Ryder, a graduate student in the Department of Anthropology at CU Boulder.

Now, she and her colleagues have come up with a creative way to be thrifty with that treasure.

In research published this week in the journal Scientific Reports, the group describes a new method for screening bone samples to see if they contain collagen. Unlike existing tools that look for that type of tissue, the team's approach won't damage the bones in the process.

For anthropologists, the test could be "a game changer," said study coauthor Matt Sponheimer, a professor of anthropology at CU Boulder.

"These remains have lain intact for thousands of years, so it always hurts a little bit to destroy a sample," he said. "It's doubly tragic if you do it, and it's all in vain. That's what we're trying to prevent."

It's a goal that emerged out of many hours of frustration. Several years ago, one of Sponheimer's colleagues was tasked with extracting collagen from a series of ancient bone samples. Collagen within bones is a bit like a birth certificate; if scientists can find enough of it, they can use collagen to determine the age of a human specimen through radiocarbon dating.

But this material, which helps to hold together human bones and other tissue, also doesn't age well. Many skeletal remains, even those from well-preserved graves, don't contain much of it.

A bone fragment uncovered in France that is roughly 21,000 to 49,000 years old [Credit: Christina Ryder; Sponheimer lab]

"My student was spending weeks and, ultimately, months of lab time trying to get dietary info from ancient collagen, and it was working incredibly poorly," Sponheimer said. "I thought to myself, 'There has to be a better way.'"

As it turns out, there was. In their latest study, Sponheimer, Ryder and their colleagues discovered that they could calibrate a machine called a near-infrared spectrometer to test bones for the presence of collagen.

The process is surprisingly easy, Ryder said. The instrument, which operates by way of a handheld probe, scans samples of bone and then--in a matter of seconds--churns out an estimate of how much collagen is inside.

"I'll tease that the longest part of the process is typing in the file name," Ryder said.

To make sure that their method was accurate, the researchers tested their instrument on more than 50 samples of ground-up bone with known concentrations of collagen. The tests correctly predicted the approximate concentrations of collagen within each of those samples. It worked with 44 pieces of whole bone, too.

Ryder added that the entire spectrometer is about the size of a briefcase, which means that the team can carry it with them into the field.

It's already gone through one high-profile dry run. Last year, Ryder flew to Germany to meet with colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. The researchers wanted to date human remains uncovered from Dolni Vestonice--a one-of-a-kind archaeological site in the Czech Republic that hosts some of the oldest known examples of representational art in human history.

"The grad student on this project had only six vials of samples from human burials," Ryder said. "That was all she had, and that was all anyone was going to have for the foreseeable future."

Thanks to her near-infrared spectrometer, however, the researchers were able to limit how much bone they had to destroy for their radiocarbon dating. The group published its results earlier this month in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports.

And, Sponheimer said, the team's method may one day also allow them to screen bones for the presence of something even more valuable than collagen: ancient DNA.

"For those who do this work, the practical benefits are obvious," Sponheimer said.

Author: Daniel Strain | Source: University of Colorado at Boulder [September 26, 2019]

Mummy study: Heart disease was bigger issue for human ancestors than initially thought

By: Thomas Schmitt Attorney on September 21, 2019 / comment : 0 Anthropology, Forensics, Middle East, South America

A new imaging study of the mummified arteries of people who lived thousands of years ago revealed that their arteries were more clogged than originally thought, according to a proof-of-concept study led by a researcher with The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth). It is in the October print edition of the American Heart Journal.

The CT scans of a Peruvian mummy showed calcification in the aorta  and iliac arteries [Credit: The Lancet]

"I wanted to see if heart disease is a modern-day problem. It appears to have been a problem for a very long time," said Mohammad Madjid, MD, MS, the study's lead author and an assistant professor of cardiovascular medicine with McGovern Medical School at UTHealth.

In the past when researchers analyzed the hearts and arteries of mummies, they used an imaging technique called computed tomography (CT scan) that creates meticulous images of blood vessels, organs, and bones. However, these scans detect only accumulated calcium in the arteries, not buildup of cholesterol.

Madjid said his team is the first to examine mummified arterial remains from different parts of the world with an imaging technique that detects cholesterol. It is called near-infrared spectroscopy.

"A catheter is placed on the sample and it sends out signals. The signals bounce off the tissue and come back. You can tell the difference between various tissue components because each has a unique molecular signature like a fingerprint," Madjid said.

Madjid's samples included mummified arterial tissue from three men and two women ranging in age from 18 to 55-60. Three died presumably of pneumonia and one of renal failure. The cause of death for the fifth person is unknown. Four lived in South America and one in the Middle East. They lived from the late Chinchorro era, 2000 B.C., to Cabuza, 350 to 1000 A.D.

Atherosclerosis 3d illustration [Credit: Sciencepics/Shutterstock]

The type of arterial disease detected is the result of cholesterol plaque buildup in arteries and is formally called atherosclerosis. It limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to various parts of the body, and it can lead to a heart attack.

Cholesterol buildup is a hallmark of atherosclerosis from the very early stages, while calcium accumulation is a sign of late stages of the disease. Therefore, relying only on calcium by CT scan underestimates the true prevalence of the disease, Madjid said.

Madjid, who is affiliated with UT Physicians and the Memorial Hermann Heart & Vascular Institute -Texas Medical Center, said factors such as exposure to smoke from fire pits, viral infections, bacterial infections, and bad genes might have contributed to the plaque buildup in people living centuries ago.

The buildup was also present in people at a relatively young age, he said.

The study offers new insight into the earlier pathological stages of atherosclerosis, showing a prevalence of cholesterol-rich plaques even in ancient times, the authors reported.

Madjid plans to examine additional mummified remains to see how widespread the arterial problems were.

The authors concluded, "Noninvasive near-infrared spectroscopy is a promising technique for studying ancient mummies of various cultures to gain insight into the origins of atherosclerosis."

Author: Rob Cahill | Source: University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston [September 21, 2019]