Small populations, inbreeding, and random demographic fluctuations could have been enough to cause Neanderthal extinction, according to a study published in the open-access journal PLOS ONE by Krist Vaesen from Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands, and colleagues.
Small populations, inbreeding, and random demographic fluctuations could have been enough to cause Neanderthal extinction, according to a new study [Credit: Petr Kratochvil (CC0)]
Paleoanthropologists agree that Neanderthals disappeared around 40,000 years ago--about the same time that anatomically modern humans began migrating into the Near East and Europe. However, the role modern humans played in Neanderthal extinction is disputed. In this study, the authors used population modelling to explore whether Neanderthal populations could have vanished without external factors such as competition from modern humans.
Using data from extant hunter-gatherer populations as parameters, the authors developed population models for simulated Neanderthal populations of various initial sizes (50, 100, 500, 1,000, or 5,000 individuals). They then simulated for their model populations the effects of inbreeding, Allee effects (where reduced population size negatively impacts individuals' fitness), and annual random demographic fluctuations in births, deaths, and the sex ratio, to see if these factors could bring about an extinction event over a 10,000-year period.
The population models show that inbreeding alone was unlikely to have led to extinction (this only occurred in the smallest model population). However, reproduction-related Allee effects where 25 percent or fewer Neanderthal females gave birth within a given year (as is common in extant hunter-gatherers) could have caused extinction in populations of up to 1,000 individuals. In conjunction with demographic fluctuations, Allee effects plus inbreeding could have caused extinction across all population sizes modelled within the 10,000 years allotted.
The population models are limited by their parameters, which are based on modern human hunter-gatherers and exclude the impact of the Allee effect on survival rates. It's also possible that modern humans could have impacted Neanderthal populations in ways which reinforced inbreeding and Allee effects, but are not reflected in the models.
However, by showing demographic issues alone could have led to Neanderthal extinction, the authors note these models may serve as a "null hypothesis" for future competing theories--including the impact of modern humans on Neanderthals.
The authors add: "Did Neanderthals disappear because of us? No, this study suggests. The species' demise might have been due merely to a stroke of bad, demographic luck."
Little is known about the origins of manikins--small anatomical sculptures thought to be used by doctors four centuries ago--but now advanced imaging techniques have offered a revealing glimpse inside these captivating ivory dolls. Researchers using micro-CT successfully identified the material composition and components of several ancient ivory manikins, according to a new study being presented next week at the annual meeting of the Radiological Society of North America (RSNA).
This is an ivory figurine reclining on its 'bed' with all organs placed inside [Credit: Fides R. Schwartz, RSNA]
Ivory manikins are typically thought to have been carved in Germany in the late 17th century. They are reclining human figurines, 4-8 inches long, generally female, which open to reveal removable organs and sometimes a fetus attached with a fabric "umbilical" cord. The manikins have intricately carved features, and some even have pillows beneath their heads. It is believed that they were used for the study of medical anatomy or perhaps as a teaching aid for pregnancy and childbirth. By the 18th century, they had been replaced by more realistic teaching tools, such as wax models and cadavers. The manikins then became objects of curiosity and luxury status symbols in private collections.
Duke University in Durham, N.C., holds the world's largest collection of manikins (22 out of 180 known manikins worldwide). Most of the manikins in the Duke collection were purchased in the 1930s and 1940s by Duke thoracic surgeon Josiah Trent, M.D., and his wife Mary Duke Biddle Trent, prior to the 1989 ivory trade ban. The researchers noted that after being donated to the university by Trent's granddaughters, the manikins have spent most of their time in archival storage boxes or behind display glass, as they are too fragile for regular handling.
"They are usually stored in a library vault and occasionally rotated into a special display unit in the Duke Medical Library for visitors to appreciate," said Fides R. Schwartz, M.D., research fellow in the Department of Radiology at Duke.
Non-destructive imaging with X-rays and CT has been used in the past to examine fragile artwork and ancient artifacts. Imaging of relics has been extremely beneficial to the fields of archaeology and paleopathology--the study of ancient diseases.
This is an Ivory manikin after removal of the abdominal and chest wall, ribs, and part of the uterus. Internal organs such as the lungs, intestines, as well as a fetus inside the uterus are visible [Credit: Fides R. Schwartz, RSNA]
Micro-CT is an imaging technique with greatly increased resolution, compared to standard CT. It not only allows visualization of internal features, it noninvasively provides volumetric information about an object's microstructure.
Dr. Schwartz and colleagues hoped that through micro-CT imaging they could determine the ivory type used in the Duke manikins, discover any repairs or alterations that were not visible to the naked eye, and allow a more precise estimation of their age.
"The advantage of micro-CT in the evaluation of these manikins enables us to analyze the microstructure of the material used," she said. "Specifically, it allows us to distinguish between 'true' ivory obtained from elephants or mammoths and 'imitation' ivory, such as deer antler or whale bone."
The research team scanned all 22 manikins with micro-CT and found that 20 out of the 22 manikins were composed of true ivory alone, though materials like antler might have been less expensive in that time. They discovered that one manikin was made entirely of antler bone, and one manikin contained both ivory and whale bone components.
Micro-CT initial scan data. The internal organs and fetus inside the uterus are visible, similar to a photograph [Credit: Fides R. Schwartz, RSNA]
Metallic components were found in four of the manikins, and fibers in two. Twelve manikins contained hinging mechanisms or internal repairs with ivory pins, and one manikin contained a long detachable pin disguised as a hairpiece.
The most established trade routes in the 17th and 18th centuries sourced ivory from Africa, leading the researchers to believe that since nearly all of the manikins were made from true ivory, it is likely that the ivory obtained to craft the manikins was acquired from the African region.
"This may assist in further narrowing down the most probable production period for the manikins," Dr. Schwartz said. "Once historical trade routes are more thoroughly understood, it might become clear that the German region of origin had access to elephant ivory only for a limited time during the 17th and 18th century, for example, from 1650 to 1700 A.D."
Additionally, identifying non-ivory components in the manikins may provide more accessibility to carbon dating, allowing the researchers to more accurately estimate the age of some of the manikins without damage to the fragile pieces.
The researchers also hope to acquire 3D scans to create digital renderings and enable subsequent 3D printed models.
"This is potentially valuable to scientific, historic and artistic communities, as it would allow display and further study of these objects while protecting the fragile originals," Dr. Schwartz said. "Digitizing and 3D printing them will give visitors more access and opportunity to interact with the manikins and may also allow investigators to learn more about their history."
The 7th excavation season, conducted from the 2nd of September to the 4th October 2019, under the direction of Dr. D. Pilides, Curator of Antiquities, Department of Antiquities (Cyprus), aimed at clarifying the architectural plan of the fortress at Nikolides and investigating further the complex of buildings at Djirpoulos. Excavation at both sites was held intermittently as Nikolides is out of reach on certain days when exercises are held by the National Guard.
View of the Nikolides excavation (2017) [Credit: Dept. of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus]
Nikolides
This year we focused attention on the access leading to the tower, by extending the excavation area, to investigate whether the staircase of ashlar stones and the platform of ashlars running parallel to it were preserved further to the south. The platform was made of large ashlars of approximately 1×0,5m although they vary in size. The staircase was not preserved any further but it was clear that the steps led to the top of the tower; only some of them are preserved as well as the lower subsrtucture of stones that supported the staircase.
On the east side, the plaster floor, made above bedrock was traced. A channel, running from an east to west direction (downslope) was made in the floor, its sides smoothed and bridged at two points with flat stones. Another two channels were found running parallel to this one on the north and south, unfortunately not very well preserved. These were also bridged over by the plaster floor at some points and may have functioned as drainage channels. On the west side of the area, a cavity, roughly rectangular, with a square ashlar stone (0,42×0,40×0,18m) in the middle was revealed and close to it, on the south, a circular hearth was found lined with clay and heavily burnt. Two Plain White sherds were found with traces of a reddish substance on the interior.
Excavation plan of Agios Sozomenos-Nikolides [Credit: Dept. of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus]
As already noted last year, it is clear that the fortress was reconstructed at some point to add the formidable ashlar tower onto the existing circuit wall. The old wall was built of smaller sized zones, placed alternately with flat worked stones, while the new wall added to support the tower was made of large unworked stones, filled in with smaller ones and its faces dressed with ashlars. We tried to investigate how the old wall joined the new part on the east side, as the two were not on the same axis; normally there should have been a joint, possibly at an angle to each other.
Unfortunately, in this exact spot, a large crevice was bulldozed out, causing a serious disturbance that did not allow us to determine this issue. In fact, the damage was so great that the wall was denuded of its structure down to bedrock and a huge collapse of large stones was scattered around it and down the slope. As in previous excavation seasons on the fortress, there is a total lack of finds and only small fragments of ceramics, mainly from small vessels occur. It is to be noted, however, that a bronze arrowhead was found on the surface after the winter rains, outside the excavated area.
Although the damage to the monument proved to be quite disruptive, the architecture and design of the fort are particularly impressive. It is evident that monumentality was a consideration but not the only factor for its construction, as it was further strengthened and embellished, meaning that defense was clearly another fundamental consideration at the time. In addition, both the plan, construction and additions indicate considerable awareness of military tactics and warfare.
Given the scarcity of other such structures in Cyprus, one wonders first whether it could be the product of local expertise or an adaptation of a foreign prototype and second, but obviously not any less significant, who was the enemy? These are issues that need to be further investigated both by continued excavation in search for more evidence and, in combination with the results from the recent excavations at the Barsak fortress nearby as well as the settlement remains at Djirpoulos and Ampelia.
Djirpoulos
On the days when the fort on the plateau at Nikolides was inaccessible due to shooting exercises, excavation continued at Djirpoulos. The first aim was to complete the plan of the building on the NW and SE sides and slowly establish in the long run, whether there was a single complex or separate buildings. A new wall (802) parallel to 403 was located on the NW side forming a small room or corridor where a clay lekane, a pithos, a large storage jar and charcoal were found. Further excavation in this area revealed the continuation of wall 403. This wall continues to the NE (401) and turns at 90 degrees (400) to form an interior space. Wall 403 is interrupted by the Medieval irrigation channel which continues from NW to SE, already found in 2016.
View of the excavations at the Djirpoulos site [Credit: Dept. of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus]
The channel was lined with gypsum and blocked with an upstanding stone on the eastern side. As the gypsum flooring was not preserved intact, further excavation below revealed the remains of the ancient wall, while wall 802 was also affected by the construction of the channel. On the south of the Medieval channel, the floor of plaster was preserved with a flat stone in situ, possibly used as a grinding surface as well as a sling stone. On the north side of Wall 802, a clay hearth was located, roughly circular, around which burnt cooking ware, an upturned lekane, pithos fragments and a stone grinder were found as well as ashes and charcoal. Most interestingly, a small copper nodule with silver plating preserved on its surface was also found in the water sieved contents of the soil sample from the hearth.
A long wall (811), most probably the extension of Wall 203, was located, thus joining this year’s excavation to the rest of the building found in 2016. A floor of compact earth was revealed on the north side of Wall 811 with traces of fire. Charcoal, a small piece of slag and a fragmentary wall bracket indicate perhaps both domestic and workshop activities. This floor possibly dates to phase 2. On the south side of Wall 811 large storage jar and pithos sherds with wavy ridges, fragments of cooking jars and basins were noted and on the floor, which was only partially preserved, a flat circular ceramic object, possibly a slow wheel was found.
Walls 803 and 804, parallel to each other, possibly repeat the architectural plan of the building found in 2016 with long narrow rooms or corridors on the NW part of the building. The upper layer, below the thick deposit of greenish clay representing erosion and abandonment, consisted of compact earth mixed with plaster, possibly the collapse of the roof and/walls. Below, a layer of stones, possibly represents the collapse of the lower part of the walls and on their removal, a floor of plaster was revealed extending towards the stone channel noted in 2016. The plaster floor belongs to the earlier phase of the building as the wall built on top (803) indicates.
Two new walls forming the corner of an interior space (814, 815) possibly also belonging to the older phase were found in the space between 803 and 804. On the south side of these walls, stone grinders, large sherds of pithos, cooking ware fragments and charcoal were retrieved. Some White Slip I sherds and small fragments of Mycenaean vessels were found above the plaster floor. Close to the stone channel a small irregular cavity in the floor contained ochre, some small animal bones and fragments of White Slip bowls. On the exterior of wall 804, below the thick greenish erosion deposit, some reddish clay and unfired ceramic fragments confirm the function of the buildings as workshops and domestic installations, as already noted in 2016.
It would be interesting to see whether the new part of the building appearing in the NW actually followed the plan of the older phase, as was the case in the SE part of the building and to also see whether we have two similar joining complexes with a similar function.
Norwegian archaeologists say they have for a second time found the remains of what could be a Viking ship by using geo-radar techniques, adding it is likely more than 1,000 years old.
Overview of the area at Edøy [Credit: Manuel Gabler, NIKU]
Knut Paasche, an archaeologist with Norway’s Institute for Cultural Heritage Research, says a 13-meter (43-foot) long keel was spotted in September in a field that used to be a burial mound on the island of Edoeya about 110 kilometers (70 miles) west of Trondheim.
Geo-radar image of the Edo ship [Credit: Manuel Gabler, NIKU]
Paasche said Friday that the ship could be up to 17 meters (56 feet) long. There are no immediate plans to unearth it.
The Viking era was approximately 793-1066.
In March, a ship was found buried west of Oslo using geo-radar — a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface.
The Department of Antiquities, Ministry of Transport, Communications and Works has announced the completion of the 2019 underwater archaeological mission at the Akrotiri-Dreamer’s Bay ancient port, in the Limassol District. The survey was directed by staff from the University of Southampton, Centre for Maritime Archaeology, as part of the Ancient Akrotiri Project, an ongoing collaborative research project on the peninsula conducted since 2015 and led by the University of Leicester.
The 2019 season focused on three main tasks: further investigation of the ancient breakwater; completion of the survey of Dreamer’s Bay, its approaches, and the area offshore of the buildings excavated by the University of Leicester team on the coast to the west of the bay [Credit: Dept. of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus]
Between September 8th and 19th 2019, a second season of underwater investigation was conducted at Dreamer’s Bay on the southern shores of the Akrotiri Peninsula, Cyprus. A team of professional diving maritime archaeologists, students of maritime archaeology, divers, surveyors, photographers, and terrestrial archaeologists predominantly from Cyprus and the UK, further investigated the ancient breakwater and the surrounding sea floor in Dreamer’s Bay.
Unlike the previous year that documented the remains of the ancient breakwater submerged some 1-4m beneath the water, the primary focus of the 2019 season was to complete a broader survey of the entire bay and the offshore approaches, and in particular to investigate an area to the east of the breakwater where a large amount of pottery was located in the previous season. The team suspected that this dispersed and concreted concentration of largely homogenous amphorae, was the remains of a shipwreck.
The 2019 season focused on three main tasks: further investigation of the ancient breakwater; completion of the survey of Dreamer’s Bay, its approaches, and the area offshore of the buildings excavated by the University of Leicester team on the coast to the west of the bay; and further analysis of the ceramic concentration to the east of the breakwater in order to determine its nature.
Survey conducted by divers using underwater scooters, enabled wider coverage of the offshore approaches, identified new finds including numerous stone anchors and what appears to be the remains of a wreck carrying roof tiles [Credit: Dept. of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus]
The breakwater was extensively surveyed in 2018 both visually and photogrammetrically. The focus of 2019 was to calculate the volume of the rubble that had fallen from the breakwater largely to the east of the structure, in order to ascertain its original height and scale. The area around the breakwater was also more thoroughly investigated and a channel some 5-6m deep was clearly mapped to the east of the breakwater noting an entrance to the more sheltered water in the lee of the structure, an area of anchorage.
Survey conducted by divers using underwater scooters, enabled wider coverage of the offshore approaches, identified new finds including numerous stone anchors and what appears to be the remains of a wreck carrying roof tiles, still of uncertain date. To the west of the breakwater other concentrations of ceramics were also noted, however, survey further offshore to the west in front of the shoreline buildings excavated by the Leicester team, still failed to identify any archaeological remains, making the theory that this was an area used as a roadstead, less feasible.
All finds were noted, described and photographed underwater and a record of their location taken using GPS. Selected finds were lifted only when they were either in danger of further displacement on the seafloor or were useful chronological indicators.
The most important result of the 2019 season was confirmation that the eastern concentration of largely homogenous ceramics located on an elevated, rocky outcrop to the east of the breakwater and the sheltered channel, was indeed a shipwreck [Credit: Dept. of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus]
The most important result of the 2019 season was confirmation that the eastern concentration of largely homogenous ceramics located on an elevated, rocky outcrop to the east of the breakwater and the sheltered channel, was indeed a shipwreck.
Dating to the end of the 6th or the 7th century AD, as confirmed by ceramics expert Dr Stella Demesticha of the University of Cyprus, the extensive remains of broken amphorae were identified scattered over an area of approximately 130,000sqm, concreted to the rocks and caught in gullies. In the middle of the wreck lies an Aswan granite column also believed to belong to the vessel.
The area was extensively surveyed and the number of amphora shoulders and rims were counted equating to almost 800 in total, reflecting a fairly substantial vessel for the period. Examples of the amphorae were lifted for further analysis, which is still ongoing.
In the middle of the wreck lies an Aswan granite column also believed to belong to the vessel [Credit: Dept. of Antiquities, Republic of Cyprus]
The work was carried out with the approval of the Republic of Cyprus Department of Antiquities and the UK Sovereign Base Areas Administration, and very much benefitted from the direct participation of RAF personnel who helped in the preparation and offered their time, expertise and support during the field season.
The University of Cyprus, MARELab, offered support in the form of an excellent dive boat, as well as expertise, particularly with respect to ceramic identification. Nicosia based CP Marine Explorations provided the dive logistics, safety and underwater survey scooters, and Kembali Divers the tanks and air. Further support was provided by the Defence Infrastructure Organisation and the Western Sovereign Base Area Archaeological Society.
This season we were honoured to welcome for a day the Base Station commander as visiting diver. The project was generously funded by the Honor Frost Foundation, UK, and sustained by a hard working team of young maritime archaeologists.
Roman remains almost 2,000 years old have been found in Mijas in new excavations at the Cortijo de Acebedo site on the Costa del Sol.
Mayor of Mijas Josele Gonzalez visiting the site [Credit: Mijas Comunicacion BB]
Several rooms that were part of a large building have been uncovered and finds including a 1st century bronze spoon, jewellery, coins and an amphora made.
The mayor of Mijas, Josele Gonzalez, announced the new discovery and said that archaeological work will continue in order to obtain more information on the different rooms found.
It is thought they may have been part of a bath house, with the existence of a cold water pool and latrines already known.
Bronze spoon found at the site [Credit: Mijas Comunicacion BB]
The director of the excavation, Desireé Piñero, has declared that it is possible to discover the context of the building with other rooms, such as other swimming pools, a possible vestibule and a patio, information that she hopes to “obtain in the coming months”.
The Councillor for Historical Heritage, Laura Moreno, has reported that “these excavations have brought to light numerous pieces of different materials and types” and that on these ceramic and metal items “restoration and consolidation work has been carried out for optimum conservation.”
Since 2017, the Department of Historical Heritage of Mijas Town Council has been carrying out archaeological surveys in the town, which uncovered two well preserved pottery kilns at the site.
Warrior graves dating back 2,000 years have been found by archaeologists near Bejsce in the province Swietokrzyskie. The cremated remains were accompanied by weapons: iron swords and spear or javelin heads. According to the archaeologists, the newly discovered cemetery covers around 1 ha.
Credit: Jan Bulas
The remains of the cemetery are in an arable field, therefore the graves in which the cremated dead are buried are heavily damaged. In the spring of this year, archaeologists discovered numerous fragments of urns. This took place during surface surveys, which consist in walking through arable fields in search of artefacts lying on their surface. The number of shells and burned bones surprised archaeologists, so it was decided to start excavations.
“We do not know exactly how many graves were in the cemetery, because our research is still at an initial stage, the graves are destroyed and often spread over a large area of the field,” says research project leader Jan Bulas from the Institute of Archaeology of the Jagiellonian University.
Credit: Ekspedycja Rzemienowice
However, the results of August excavations give an idea of a high density of graves. At least 20 burials were discovered in a 200 sq m area. These are only researchers` estimates, because some of the graves discovered during excavations are also heavily damaged. Just like their equipment, which has undergone analysis and conservation in recent months.
“Heavily corroded and seemingly shapeless objects turned out to be fragments of swords or iron fibulas,” the researcher says. During the first season of excavations, archaeologists managed to find a total of four swords from about 2,000 years ago.
Credit: Ekspedycja Rzemienowice
“For comparison, we know two swords from the largest known in this region and fully studied necropolis from this period in nearby Michalowice. Meanwhile, our research is just beginning,” the researcher notes.
Nine spear or javelin heads were also found in Bejsce. In total, archaeologists counted nearly 200 metal artefacts and their fragments after this year`s research. There are also bone, stone and clay items.
Credit: Ekspedycja Rzemienowice
During excavations, archaeologists came across the remains of mysterious square structures. They have a square plan and most often triangular cross-section.
“Similar structures, so-called grooved objects, are known from other cemeteries from this period in southern Poland, but their function is still unclear. In Bejce, they contained fragments of ceramic vessels as well as metal objects,” he says. Interestingly, they are all oriented by cardinal directions. According to the archaeologist, they may be related to the designation of space in cemeteries for individual families.
Credit: Ekspedycja Rzemienowice
It is not clear which communities should be associated with the deceased buried in the cemetery. Based on discovered vessels and other items, archaeologists identify this group as members of Przeworsk culture. Bulas thinks that they could have been representatives of the Lugii tribal union, a political entity made up of peoples of various origins. The texts of ancient historians are very ambiguous in this matter, scientists say.
Archaeologists say they are now planning further excavations in Bejsce.
Archaeologists have discovered the remains of an Anglo-Saxon woman, buried with lavish jewels on the University’s Canterbury campus.
The skeleton of the Anglo Saxon woman [Credit: Canterbury Archaelogical Trust]
The Canterbury Archaeological Trust (CAT) has been working on site as the University gets ready to open its Science, Technology, Health, Engineering and Medicine facilities in 2020, with a £65m building on the North Holmes campus.
The woman, believed to have been in her twenties, was found buried with a silver, garnet-inlaid, Kentish disc brooch. Scientific testing on similar finds has shown the garnets are likely to have come from Sri Lanka rather than a nearer source. Such brooches, crafted in east Kent from exotic materials, were produced at the behest of the Kentish royal dynasty and distributed as gifts to those in their favour.
The broach found with the woman's remains [Credit: Canterbury Archaelogical Trust]
She was also wearing a necklace of amber and glass beads, a belt fastened with a copper alloy buckle, a copper alloy bracelet and was equipped with an iron knife. Together, the items found in the grave suggest that this young woman was buried between AD 580-600. She would have been a contemporary, and likely acquaintance, of the Kentish King Ethelbert and his Frankish Queen Bertha, whose modern statues can be seen nearby at Lady Wootton’s Green.
“The discovery of another ancient burial on our campus is extremely exciting,” she said. “It demonstrates the richness of the archaeology that surrounds us, and contributes important new evidence to our understanding of life and death in Canterbury around 1400 years ago.”
Cremation urns were also discovered [Credit: Canterbury Archaelogical Trust]
It is possible that the woman lived long enough to be an eyewitness to the arrival of St Augustine and his monks, who came to Canterbury in AD 597 on their mission to convert the English to Christianity. But her burial, found beside Old Sessions House, close to the present boundary with St Augustine’s Abbey, almost certainly took place before the construction of the first church at St Augustine’s in the early seventh century.
Dr Andrew Richardson, Outreach and Archives Manager at CAT, said: “This discovery is particularly significant, as it suggests that relatively high-status burial was taking place on the site in the years shortly before the establishment of the Abbey.
“One of the primary roles of the Abbey was as the burial place of Augustine and his companions, Archbishops and members of the Kentish royal dynasty. This find suggests that this may represent a continuance of existing practice at the site, rather than a completely new development and has implications for our interpretation of this World Heritage site.”
The woman’s bones will be retained for further scientific study, which it is hoped will provide further insights into her life, death and burial.
European police have busted an international crime gang involved in trafficking tens of thousands of Greek archaeological artefacts looted from illegal excavations in Italy, law enforcement agencies said Monday.
Credit: Carabinieri TPC
Police from Italy, Britain, France, Germany and Serbia arrested 23 suspects and carried out 103 searches in the investigation that started in 2017, the EU police agency Europol and Eurojust said.
The gang used bulldozers and metal detectors to loot objects as old as 400 BC from the Calabria region -- the "toe" of Italy -- before selling them across Europe.
"Illegal excavations were managed by a well-structured organised crime group... led by two Calabrians" living in the southern province of Crotone, the agencies said in a combined statement.
Credit: Europol
In Calabria "the cultural heritage includes important traces from the Greek and Roman period", Europol said.
Italian media said two Calabrian men aged 59 and 30 were arrested.
The gang also included "fences, intermediaries and mules operating out of different Italian regions" with the looted artefacts then going through contacts in Dijon, Munich, London and Vrsac in northeastern Serbia.
Credit: Carabinieri TPC
Some of the stolen objects is said to date as far back as the fourth and third centuries B.C. and include five terracotta vases and oil lamps, plates depicting animal scenes, brooches and various jewels, Italian media reports said.
The looters used bulldozers to dig craters, before sifting through the earth and passing it through metal detectors, the reports added, quoting police sources.
"The looting carried out over the course of several years caused considerable damage to Italian cultural heritage," Europol and Eurojust added.
Credit: Europol
Coordination between the two agencies enabled "arrests, searches and seizures immediately and simultaneously in the five countries," they added.
Italian and Swiss police in 2016 recovered a haul of archaeological artefacts stolen from Italy and stored by a notorious British antiquities dealer.
The haul, worth nine million euros ($10 million), was discovered in 2014 in a storage unit at the Geneva Freeport rented by Britain's disgraced Robin Symes, a giant in the illegal antiquities trade with ties to Italian tomb raiders.
At the time it was regarded as one of the most important recoveries of the last few decades.
In the second half of the 9th century, an important woman dies at the farm now known as Skeiet at Vinjeora, in central Norway. Her dress is fastened at the front with two large shell-shaped brooches of gilded bronze along with a crucifix-shaped brooch, made from an Irish harness fitting. She is then placed in a boat, about seven or eight metres long. Grave goods are also buried along with body, including a pearl necklace, two scissors, a spindle whorl– and a cow head.
The oldest grave is from the 8th century. But why were they buried together? [Credit: Arkikon]
So far, there is nothing extraordinary about this burial ritual. It is only when the boat is buried that the Vinjeora Vikings do something that will intrigue archaeologists more than 1000 years into the future.
Instead of digging a new grave for the woman, a boat grave from the 8th century is carefully excavated. This is a larger boat, probably between nine and ten metres long. It contains the body of a man buried with weapons. The boat with the woman is gently placed inside the man’s boat, and then they are both buried. Who were the two and why were they buried together, even though they died 100 years apart?
Archaeologists at the NTNU University Museum have been puzzling over this exact question ever since they unearthed the graves in October. The unusual find was discovered during the excavation of a burial ground of one of the Viking Age farms in this area. The excavations are being undertaken in connection with improvements to the E39 highway.
Hoping for DNA analysis
Nearly all the wood in the boats had rotted away, there was only a little left in the keel of the smallest boat. Still, the boat rivets were still in their original positions, so that by looking at the them, the archaeologists were able to determine that they had found two boats in one.
The soil in the area that was excavated was not good for preserving human remains. Archaeologists were consequently overjoyed when they found parts of the skull of the woman in the upper boat tomb [Credit: Astrid Lorentzen, NTNU University Museum]
“I had heard about several boat graves being buried in one burial mound, but never about a boat that had been buried in another boat,” said Raymond Sauvage, an archaeologist at the NTNU University Museum and project manager for the excavation.
“I have since learned that a few double boat graves were found in the 1950s, at Tjolling, in the south of the Norwegian county of Vestfold. Still, this is essentially an unknown phenomenon,” he said
The soil properties at the dig site aren’t good for preserving bones. Archaeologists were consequently extremely happy when they found parts of the skull of the woman in the upper boat grave.
“Hopefully, we we will be able to get some DNA from the skull to provides us with more information, such as what she looked like,” says Raymond Sauvage.
Isotope analysis can be another source of knowledge about the woman. Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element that vary between different food sources and geographical locations. Isotope analyses from teeth and skeletons can therefore give us information about where a person was born and lived during their life, and about what he or she ate.
Irish harness fitting a sign of status
The crucifix-shaped brooch in the woman’s grave says a lot about both her and the community she was part of.
This crucifix-shaped brooch was found in the woman’s grave [Credit: Raymond Sauvage, NTNU Vitenskapsmuseet]
“The decoration and the design itself tell us that it came from Ireland, and that it was once part of a harness fitting,” says researcher Aina Heen Pettersen at NTNU’s Department of Historical Studies.
Pettersen is writing a PhD about the significance and use of Irish and British artefacts that were brought to Norway during the Viking Age.
“It was common among the Vikings to split up decorative harness fittings and reuse them as jewellery. Several fastenings on the back of this brooch were preserved, and were used to attach leather straps to the harness. The new Norse owners attached a pin to one of the fastenings so it could be used as a brooch.”
Pettersen explains that brooches like these probably were quite exclusive, and that they are often found in well-equipped – though not particularly rich – graves.
This suggests that the harness fittings were distributed among people who took part in the Viking voyages or helped organize them.
“The Viking voyages – whether for raids, trading or other expeditions – were central in Norse society. That meant it was important to participate in this activity, not only for the material goods, but also to raise both your own and your family’s status,” Pettersen said.
“Using artefacts from Viking raids as jewellery signalled a clear difference between you and the rest of the community, because you were part of the group that took part in the voyages.”
Viking hipster?
The man in the larger boat grave was buried with a spear, a shield and a single-edged sword. These weapons enabled archaeologists to confidently date the grave to the 8th century.
The cruciform brooch was found in the woman’s grave [Credit: Raymond Sauvage, NTNU Vitenskapsmuseet]
“Sword styles change through the centuries, which means we can unambiguously date this grave to the 8th century, the period that is known as the Merovingian era in Northern Europe. That’s assuming that we are not dealing with a Viking hipster,” Sauvage said with a smile.
But what was the connection between the man and the woman? Sauvage says it’s reasonable to assume that the two were related. The Vikings on Vinjeora probably had a clear idea about who was in each burial mound, since this information most likely was passed down for many generations.
“Family was very important in Viking Age society, both to mark status and power and to consolidate property rights. The first legislation on allodial rights in the Middle Ages said you had to prove that your family had owned the land for five generations. If there was any doubt about the property right, you had to be able to trace your genus to haug og hedni – i.e. to burial mounds and paganism,” says Sauvage.
“Against this backdrop, it’s reasonable to think that the two were buried together to mark the family’s ownership to the farm, in a society that for the most part didn’t write things down,” Sauvage said.
A monument in the landscape
Two-boats-in-one and interesting grave goods are not the only thing that makes the archaeologist enthusiastic about this find. The placement of the two boat graves – at the edge of the largest mound on the burial ground – also tells a story.
“The connection between the boat graves and between the boat graves and the mound is very exciting. The two boat graves are also located right at the edge of a cliff, overlooking the fjord. This must have been a monument in the landscape,” Sauvage says.
The age of the large burial mound also makes Raymond Sauvage’s archaeologist heart skip a beat.
“The burial mound must naturally be older than the oldest boat grave, meaning early Merovingian age. This is a fascinating era in Scandinavian history, from which there are few archaeological finds.”
Unfortunately, hundreds of years of farming on the site means the large burial mound has been completely ploughed away. However, the archaeologists still hope they might find artefacts when this area is further excavated next summer.
“So far, we’ve found part of a brooch from the Merovingian era, indicating that the large burial mound once held a richly appointed woman’s grave,” Sauvage said.
A research team from the University of Valencia and the CSIC has published a study that demonstrates the use of plant fibres during the Final Palaeolithic era in the Santa Maira caves (Castell de Castells, Alicante).
Santa Maira cave [Credit: Asociación RUVID]
These are fragments of braided rope and basketwork imprints on clay. The rope has provided the oldest direct dating in Europe for an object made of braided fibres: 12,700 years ago. In the same work, the first evidence on the use of containers made from clay-coated baskets has also been revealed.
The work analyses both the species used to obtain braided ropes, their treatment and preparation, as well as their use to manufacture more complex devices such as baskets and containers. These materials have been dated back about 13,000 years. Ethnological data indicate that these materials have been widely used among historical societies, but we are largely unaware of their use in Prehistory.
“It is an important contribution to the knowledge of the use of perishable materials among the hunter-gatherer-fishermen societies of the European Palaeolithic” according to J. Emili Aura, Professor of the Department of Prehistory, Archaeology and Ancient History of the University of Valencia.
The conservation of vegetable fibres of this age requires particular preservation conditions. Also that of clay fragments with baskets imprints, whose exposure to fire has allowed their conservation. These are containers whose age exceeds 5,000 years of the first Neolithic ceramics of the western Mediterranean. The study has been published in the academic journal Vegetation History and Archaeobotany.
String fragments analyzed in the study [Credit: U. València]
The analysis of the vegetal fibres has allowed to identify the remains as belonging to a monocotyledonus, probably from the group of grasses and very similar to esparto. Its leaves were braided to make ropes with which a large number of artefacts could be made and with several uses.
The director of the excavation project, J. Emili Aura, points out that the Santa Maira data allow us to begin to correct a great bias. To think that only the materials that are best preserved, such as stone, bone or shell, were the most used is a mistake. These evidences show that other materials and techniques must have a wide use and diverse applications: baskets, backpacks or footwear.
This bias also affects the importance attributed to these techniques during the Palaeolithic. “The same goes for the character of this braiding rope activity and its possible authors. It is known that in historical societies it was a seasonal task developed largely by women.”
The materials analysed indicate the manufacture of various basketry objects using ropes, without ruling out the possible elaboration of fabrics. The fragments of mud with imprints allow us to propose the hypothesis that these are baskets that were covered with mud, which could be used for the preservation of liquids or for cooking. Its discovery opens a good number of questions. Ropes and containers are related to the rest of the techniques and materials found in the site, with the palaeoeconomics of these groups and their settlement systems.
A new genetic study carried out at the University of Helsinki and the University of Turku demonstrates that, at the end of the Iron Age, Finland was inhabited by separate and differing populations, all of them influencing the gene pool of modern Finns. The study is so far the most extensive investigation of the ancient DNA of people inhabiting the region of Finland.
Medieval burial site of Kalmistomaki in Kylalahti, Hiitola in Russia [Credit: Stanislav Belskiy]
In the study, published in Scientific Reports, genes were investigated from archaeological bone samples of more than one hundred individuals who lived between the 4th and 19th centuries AD. Most of the samples originated in the Iron Age and the Middle Ages. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is passed down by mothers to all of their offspring, was extracted from the individuals, thus uncovering the population history of women.
Based on the findings, the people who inhabited Finland in the Iron Age (approximately 300-1300 AD) and the Middle Ages (approximately 1200-1500 AD) shared mitochondrial lineages with today's Finns. However, significant differences were seen in the genome of individuals buried in different burial sites in the Iron Age in particular. mtDNA lineages typical of Stone Age hunter-gatherers were common among those buried in Luistari, Eura (southwest Finland), and Kirkkailanmaki, Hollola (southern Finland).
The Iron Age and the medieval burial sites investigated in the study include Levanluhta in Isokyro, Luistari in Eura, Kirkkailanmaki in Hollola, Kalmistomaki in Kylalahti, Hiitola, and Tuukkala in Mikkeli (marked in the map with dark grey colouring) [Credit: SUGRIGE-HANKE]
In Kylalahti, Hiitola (Republic of Karelia, Russia) and Tuukkala, Mikkeli (eastern Finland), the most common findings were lineages characteristic of ancient European farmer populations. The fifth Iron Age burial site included in the study is located in Levanluhta, western Finland. Many of the individuals buried there represented mtDNA lineages associated with the modern Sami.
"All of the above originally independent lineages remain common in Finland to this day. This indicates that the studied Iron Age populations have had an impact on the gene pool of contemporary Finns," says doctoral student Sanni Oversti from the Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland.
The researchers posit that the differences found in the Iron Age populations of western and eastern Finland are opposite to those found in today's Finns: the lineages associated with ancient farmers were more common in the east, while the lineages inherited from hunter-gatherers were more prevalent in the west. Farmer populations arriving in Finland not only from the west and south but also from the east provides a potential explanation for this.
